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Thamizh Literature Through the Ages
தமிழ் இலக்கியம் - தொன்று தொட்டு இன்று வரை

Dr. C.R. Krishnamurti,
Professor Emeritus, University of British Columbia,
Vancouver, B.C. Canada

5. The Era of Devotional Experience (பக்தி காலம்)

5.1. Background

For nearly 200 years after the Sangam period, Buddhist and Jain scholars and monks had been dominating the Thamizh literary scene. Thanks to their efforts significant changes were made in the literary style and format as well as in the outlook of people. Despite their efforts to propagate Buddhist and Jain philosophy in the course of their literary pursuits, they did succeed in introducing many new concepts in literary theory.

For the first time in the annals of Thamizh literature, a well conceived story was woven into a cohesive poetic epic (காப்பியம்) using main and supporting characters. Secondly an ordinary woman was made the heroine (as in SilappathikAram) instead of the King or some other dignitary. Thirdly instead of being cast into a secondary role, a woman was elevated to the status of a deity because of her chastity and high moral calibre. Finally people had the opportunity to break away from the traditional mundane coverage of regulations pertaining to love, romance and the pursuit of worldly pleasures in an abstract fashion and were able to entertain themselves with the heroism and morality of fictional (or real) characters in the epics. In other words the epics carried whatever message the authors wanted to convey to the people much better than conventional poems.

On the other hand, the impact of Buddhist and Jain writings on people's psychology was not without their disadvantages. In a society where the emotional experience of clandestine love (களவியல்)  and chaste love (கற்பியல்) was considered highly desirable, and where the values of hospitality (விருந்தோம்பல்) and married life (இல்லறம்) were held high, the messages of strict control of the five senses (ஐம்புலன் அட்க்கம்), abstinence from worldly pleasures and the superiority of the ascetic way of life (துறவறம்) appeared alien to their minds. Even the appearances, the robes and other paraphernalia of the monks made them highly visible in the public and led to scepticism of their motives.

Moreover, the Thamizh people have, by this time, adopted the VhEdic traditions of Hinduism and worshipped ThirumAl (திருமால்) , Sivan (சிவன்) and Piraman (பிரமன்) as well as the other pantheons of Hinduism. Reference has already been made to the worshipping patterns of the Thamizh people during the temple festivals (இந்தர்விழ்வூரெடுத்த காதை) and Aycchiyar kuravai (அய்ச்சியர் குரவை) in SilappathikAram. They were able to relate to their personal deities by dancing and singing in their praise. It is probable that an unkown fear crept into the minds of people that the Buddhists and Jains were trying to impose upon them something exotic and novel!

Even the Thamizh Kings seemed to be confused over this issue which was borne by the fact that, from to time, one or the other changed his faith from Hinduism to Jainism and later back again. In other cases the Kings supported all the factions to suit their expediency. The animosity between the Buddhist and Jain monks and the followers of VishNu or Sivan became an open secret.

5.2. Semantics of the word 'Bhakthi'

The above introduction would explain why and how religion played a significant role in the development of the Thamizh language after the sixth century A.D. An interaction between Thamizh and Sanskrit also became inevitable due to the movement of scholars across different regions of the country. Visits by foreigners introduced new perspectives of language and religion. It is under these circumstances that the concept of devotional experience (பக்தி)became popular in the Thamizh region.

Dr. S.rAdhAkrishNan (எஸ். ராதாகிருஷ்ணன்) defines Bhakthi as the "conscience recognition of wholehearted response to the source of all goodness, the Divine. It is in this world, not vows, not pilgrimages, not yOga practices, not study of Scriptures, not sacrificial rites, not philosophical discourses; only devotion can give us freedom."

In the Bhagavad GItai (பகவத் கிதை) which explains the complex metaphysical concepts contained in the upanishads (உபநிடதம்) in simpler terms, many paths,YOga, (மார்க்கம், வழி) have been outlined for the realization of absolute truth. The karma yOga , the way of work, (கர்ம யோகம்), Bhakthi yOga , the way of devotion, (பக்தி யோகம்) and dhyAna yOga , the way of meditation, (தியான் யோகம்) lead to wisdom or enlightenment (gnAna) (ஞானம்). Thus Bhakthi refers to "unqualified love/devotion" to God. Since this experience cannot be translated in full verbally, it comes under the classification of akam (அகம்) according to TholkAppiar's definition. Bhakthi (பக்தி) is therefore referred to above as a devotional experience. This definition also renders the term, Bhakthi, universal, so that it transcends religious boundaries.

5.3. Saiva SitthAntham (சைவ சித்தாந்தம்)

The basic philosophy of the Saiva saints is known as Saiva SitthAndham. It is believed that pasu , living things, (பசு) can attain the realization of the Supreme, pathi, (பதி) by getting rid of pAsam, attachment, (பாசம்). In practice this is accomplished by concentrating the mind on the Supreme through devotion and music.

The four components of the Bhakthi pathway are therefore the Absolute Being or the Divine, the paths to attain it, the devotion and finally the devotional experience. The Absolute Being or the Divine has been referred to as VishNnu or Sivan by the VaishNavaites and Saivaites respectively. This concept should be understood to dispel the wrong notion that Hindus believe in many gods ! In fact the two religious groups in the Thamizh region have been repeating ad nauseum about the importance of acknowledging the existence of only one Supreme Being, who may be referred to by thousand names.

(ஒருநாமம் ஓர்உருவம் ஒன்றும் இல்லார்க்கு ஆயிரம் திருநாமம் பாடிநாம் தெள்ளேணங்கொட்டாமோ) MAnicKa VAchakar, (மாணிககவாசகர்)

The second component, path, refers to the route to be followed for the realization of the Divine. In order to deliver the difficult message that the Divine has no form or name, to facilitate the control of the five senses and to divert the minds of people from sensual worldly pleasures towards concentration on the Supreme, the n^AyanmArkaL (நாயன்மார்கள்) and AzhvArkaL (ஆழ்வார்கள்) exploited the inherent tastes of the Thamizh people in music, dance and, in general, anything beautiful.

They composed moving lyrics in Thamizh and set up appropriate music (இராகம், பண்) so that they could be sung alone or in groups. Finally, to appeal to their aesthetic tastes, beautiful form(s) were given to the formless Divine to whom the folks can relate. This approach did work and gave the impetus for idol worship in the temples which proved to be a place where there is enjoyment for the five senses towards the Supreme. The following songs are examples of the descriptions of the idols which moved the hearts of Thamizh people in their spiritual pursuit:

குனித்த புருவமும் கொவ்வைச் செவ்வாயில் குமிண் சிரிப்பும்
பனித்த சடையும் பவளம்போல் மேனியில் பால்வெண்ணீறும்
இனித்தமுடைய எடுத்த பொற்பாதமும் காணப்பெற்ல்
மனித்தப் பிறவியும் வேண்டுவதே இந்த மாநிலத்தே.
(திருநாவுக்கரசர்).

குடதிசை முடியைவைத்துக் குணதிசை பாதம் நீட்டி
வடதிசை பின்பு காட்டித் தென்திசை இலங்கைநோக்கி
கடல்நிறக் கடவுள் எந்தை அரவணைத்துயிலுமா கண்டு
உடல் எனக்கு உருகுமாலோ, என்செய்கேன் உலகத்தீரே.
(நாலாயிரம் 890)

The third factor is the absolute faith with which the devotee surrenders himself or herself to the Divine. If the first three are adhered to sincerely, one gets the devotional experience within, leading to the realization of the Divine.

5.4. n^AyanmArkaL (நாயன்மார்கள்) and AzhvArkAL (ஆழ்வார்கள்)

The protagonists of Sivan are referred to as n^AyanmArkaL while those of VishNu as AzhvArkaL. In addition to their staunch devotion (பக்தி) to their chosen trinity of Hinduism, these religious leaders were also endowed with literary scholarship in Thamizh and Sanskrit as well as expertise in music. They travelled from place to place all over the Thamizh region singing the praise of God and were deriving their own internal pleasure during the process.

The devotional spirits, the literary composition and the music appealed to the aesthetically oriented Thamizh people, who were starving for a spiritual experience of this type. Of the many ways suggested for salvation, one would presume, they realized that the Bhakthi route (பக்தி மார்க்கம்)  was the one more appropriate to their tastes and way of life. In the absence of proselytic pressures they were free to join the VishNu or the Sivan group according to their choice. Besides prayers by individuals, group prayers (பஜனை) to their chosen deities were organized by the respective followers (அடியார்கள்).

The Thamizh Kings encouraged either of the two groups by building big temples whose architectural designs are the pride and joy of all Thamizh people. In addition to being places of worships, the temples served as a forum for promoting music and dance and for other social activities. Besides the financial gifts, the Thamizh Kings established endowments in the form of land gifts to make the temples self supporting. The tradition continues up to the present time.

The impact of the Bhakthi movement on the people was so great that there was a revival of interest in Hinduism. This, in fact, suited the AzhvArkaL and n^AyanmArkaL who were concerned about the domination of the new religious orders from the north. As one would expect in any situation where sects or creeds try to impose new theological dogmas on indigenous population, there were frequent verbal and even physical conflicts among the followers of the different groups.

As in many religious contexts in other parts of the world, not surprisingly, mysticism came into the picture. It would be futile to subject these mystic powers to critical analyses. It may well be that they played a psychological role to boost people's morale in themselves as well as in the system ! There are many references in the literarary works which came out during this period to the various mystic events that took place. An example of the Saivaite saint,  (திருநாவுக்கரசர்)  mystic deeds is summarized in the following poem:

தலைகொள் நஞ்சு அமுதாக விளையுமே
தழலில் நீறு தடாகம தாகுமே
கொலைசெய் யானை குனிந்து பணியுமே
கூர் அராவிடந் தீரெனத் தீருமே
கலைகொள் வேதவனப்பதி தன்னுள்ளே
கதவு மீண்டு கடுகத் திறக்குமே
அலைகொள் வாரியிற் கல்லு மிதக்குமே
அப்பர் போற்றும் அருந்தமிழ்ப் பாடலே.

The Thamizh literary compositions of all the n^ayanmArkaL were later compiled into Saiva textual canon, ThirumuRaikaL (திருமுறைகள்) while those of the VaishNava AzhvArkaL into the VaishNava canon, the n^AlAyirat thivyap praban^tham (The Holy 4000 hymns, (நாலாயித்திவ்யப் பிரபந்தம்). The literary contributions of the AzhvArkal and n^AyanmArkaL are discussed below.

Before the Saivaite doyens (சைவசமயக்குரவர்கள்) appeared on the scene, there was a housewife who lived in KAraikkAl (காரைக்கால்) in the sixth century A.D. Her husband became disenchanted with her extreme devotion to Sivan and ultimately deserted her.

KAraikkAl ammaiyAr (காரைக்கால் அம்மையார்)  the respected lady from KAraikkAl, as she came to be known later, left home and roamed the country side self styling herself as a ghost  (பேய்) and performing mystic activities. She wrote heart rendering devotional songs which set the format for the ThEvAram poems to follow. She is said to be the forerunner of the Bhakthi movement in the Saivaite traditon. She is credited with 3 books: aRputhat thiruvan^tAthi (அற்புதத் திருவந்தாதி), irattai MAmaNi  (இரட்டை மாமணி) , MUttha ThiruppathikankaL (மூத்த திருப்பதிகங்கள்). The pathikams (பதிகம்)  are in the viruttham (விருத்தம்) meter. In the following poem she described that from the time time she was born and began to speak she revered and worshipped the glorious feet of Lord Sivan. She asks Him when He is going to relieve her of her (worldly) worries:

பிறந்துமொழிபயின்ற பின்னெல்லாங்காதல்
சிறந்துநின் சேவடியே சேர்ந்தேன் - நிறந்திகழும்
மைஞ்ஞான்ற கண்டத்துவானோர் பெருமானே
எஞ்ஞான்று தீர்ப்பதிடர்
(அற்புதத் திருவந்தாதி)

5.4.1ThirumuRaikaL (திருமுறைகள்)

The Saiva canonical poems composed by 63 leading saints scanning approximately 600 years were classified into 12 books, ThirumuRaikaL (திருமுறைகள்)  by n^ampi AndAr n^ampi (நம்பி ஆண்டார் நம்பி) (11th century A.D.) according to the wishes of ChOzha King abaya KulasEkaran (அபயகுலசேகரன், குலோத்துங்க சோழன்.)

The first, second and third ThirumuRaikaL were composed by Thiru GnAna Sampan^thar (திருஞானசம்பந்தர்). Born in SIrkAzhi (சீர்காழி) in the seventh century A.D. he is said to have been nursed by umAdhEvi (உமாதேவி), the sakthi (சக்தி) counterpart of Sivan. In a short life span of 16 years he was one of the architects of the Bhakthi movement. In addition to his delightful songs, he defeated the Jain monks in debate and succeeded in bringing the hunch backed PAndya King back into the Hindu fold. He has composed 1600 pathikams (பதிகங்கள்), out of which only 384 are now available.

The fourth, fifth and sixth ThirumuRaikaL were authored by Thirun^Avuk karasar (திருநாவுக்கரசர்).He is also known as appar (அப்பர்) , the other architect of the Bhakthi movement. He was born in ThiruvAmUr (திருவாமூர்) and was a contemporary of Thiru GnAna Sampan^thar. He joined the Jain movement for a while and after an attack of a severe abdominal ailment, he came back into the Hindu fold and spent his long span of 80 years in social service. Out of the 4800 pathikams (group of 10 stanzas) he wrote, only 312 are available.

Sun^tharar (சுந்தரர்), the author of the seventh ThirumuRai was born in ThirumunaipAdi (திருமுனைப்பாடி) . In addition to his devotion to Lord Sivan he was instrumental in organizing the followers into a cohesive group. Only 100 pathikams of Sun^tharar are available The first 7 ThirumuRaikaL are collectively known as ThEvAram (தேவாரம்), garland of gods.

Manicka vAchakar (மாணிக்கவாசகர்), one whose words are like gems wrote the eighth ThirumuRai consisting of ThiruvAchakam (திருவாசகம்) , ThiruvempAvai (திருவெம்பாவை)  and ThirukkOvaiyAr, (திருக்கோவையார்). He was born in ThiruvAthavUr (திருவாதவூர்) in the late 8th or early 9th century A.D. He was a minister in the PAndya Kingdom but when he was sent to purchase horses for the army, he spent all the money in religious pursuits. Lord Sivan is supposed to have blessed him with his grace and saved him from the wrath of the King. It is said that one who does not get moved by ThiruvAchakam will not be moved by anything else. (திருவாசகத்துக்கு உருகாதார் ஒரு வாசகத்துக்கும் உருகார்).

 ThiruvAchakam has 51 poems wherein all the four classes of meters (அகவல், வெண்பா, கலிப்பா, விருத்தம்) have been employed.

The ninth ThirumuRai is named ThiruvisaippA (திருவிசைப்பா), a collection of poems by nine saints.

The tenth ThirumuRai, Thiruman^thiram (திருமந்திரம்) was written by a Saiva mystic (சித்தர்), ThirumUlar (திருமூலர்) who was a philosopher-poet of the late 6th century A.D. His poems are supposed to have the simplicity of veNpA (வெண்பா) and the music of the viruttham. Thiruman^thiram   (திருமந்திரம்) is noted for its profound philosophical messages and reformatory principles. As one who stood for the eclectic school of mysticism, ThirumUlar had made references in his book to tantra (தந்திரம்), mantram (மந்திரம்)and yOga (யோகம்) practices.

In an apparent condemnation of the practice of self mortification, he states that there is no use of even frying one's own flesh in the fire till it becomes like gold; one cannot attain salvation unless one becomes deeply devoted whole heartedly to the divine.

என்பே விறகாய் இறைச்சி அறுத்திட்டுப்
பொன்போல் கனலில் பொரிய வார்ப்பினும்
அன்போடு உருகி அகம்குழை வார்க்கன்றி
என்போல் மணியினை எய்தஒண் ணாதே.

ThirumUlar's most profound contribution to Saiva SitthAn^tham, which was followed later by ThAyumAnavar (தாயுமானவர்) and rAmalingar (இராமலிங்கர்), was his emphasis on the oneness of God and oneness of all creeds in the whole world. The following poem represents his philosophy nicely :

ஒன்றுகண் டீர்உல குக்கொரு தெய்வமும்
ஒன்றுகண் டீர்உல குக்குயி ராவது
நன்றுகண் டீர்இனி நமசிவா யப்பழந்
தின்றுகண் டேற்கிது தித்தித்த வாறே.
(திருமந்திரம் 2962)

The eleventh ThirumuRai consists of poems composed by a heterogenous group of 12 Saivaite scholars and devotees including KAraikkAl ammaiyAr, n^akkIra ThEvar (நக்கீர தேவர், கைலைபாதி காளத்தி பாதி அந்தாதி), KallAdat ThEvar (கல்லாடத்தேவர்), Kapila ThEvar (கபிலதேவர்), cEramAn PerumAL (சேரமான்பெருமாள்), n^ampi AndAr n^ampi (நம்பியாண்டார்நம்பி), and Patttinat thatikaL (பட்டினத்தடிகள்)

In Thamizh literature there were two poets with the name PattinatthAr (பட்டினத்தார்). Part of the confusion is because both hailed from KavirippUm pattinam (காவிரிப்பூம் பட்டினம்)and both followed the Saivaite faith. Their similarities end there.

One of them lived in the 11th century A.D. while the other belonged to the 14-15th century. Generally referred to as PattinatthatikaL (பட்டினத்தடிகள்), the 11th century poet contributed the following works which form part of the 11th ThirumuRai (திருமுறை): KOil n^AnmaNi MAlai (கோயில்நான்மணிமாலை), Thirukkzhumala mummaNik kOvai  (திருக்கழுமல மும்மணிக்கோவை), Thiruvidai maruthUr mummaNik kOvai (திருவிடைமருதூர் மும்மணிக்கோவை), ThiruvEkampamutayAr Thiruvan^thAthi (திருவேகம்பமுடையார் திருவந்தாதி) and ThiruvoRRiyUr orupA orupathu (திருவொற்றியூர் ஒருபா ஒருபது) . Though he was a staunch Saivaite, PattinatthatikaL followed a philosophy in which he advocated that people should remain inside the traditional family system but lead a virtuous life coupled with devotion to Sivan. This was diametrically opposite to the total renunciation preached by PattinatthAr who lived later.

The twelfth ThirumuRai was written by SEkkizAr (சேக்கிலார்). His work is called Periya purANam (பெரிய புராணம் அல்லது திருத்தொண்டர் புராணம்) . The former terminology means the Great purANam and the latter refers to the fact that the work deals with the glory of the Saivaite saints. He lived in the twelfth century A.D. during the reign of the ChOzha King KulOthunga III (முன்றாம் குலோத்துங்க சோழன்)

5.4.1.1. Salient features of 12 ThirumuRaikaL

5.4.1.1.1. Formless Supreme

Despite the multiplicity of godheads one encounters in Hindu mythology, a closer study of the ThEvAram poems would indicate that, in fact, the reverse was true. All the saints were stressing the oneness of the Supreme in no uncertain terms. MANikkavAchakar's pleads in his ThirutheLLENam (திருத்தெள்ளேணம்) , "For One who does not have any name or any form, why not we give thousand different names and hail His greatness"? (ஒருநாமம் ஓருருவம் இல்லார்க்கு ஆயிரம் திருநாமம் பாடிநாம் தெள்ளேணங் கொட்டாமோ).

ThirumUlar has stated unequivocally in his Thiruman^thiram "one caste and one God only".

ஒன்றே குலமும் ஒருவனே தேவனும்
நன்றே நினைமின் நமனில்லை நாணாமே
சென்மே பகுங்கதி யில்லைநுஞ் சித்தத்து
நின்றே நிலைபெற நீர்நினைந் துய்மினே.
(திருமந்திரம் 2104.)

Similarly, ThirumUlar says in his thought provoking Thiruman^thiram that the omnipotent One cannot be transcribed in a single place nor can be measured, nor has any names but can only be experienced:

அந்தமில்லானுக் ககலிடந்தான் இல்லை
அந்தமில்லானை அளப்பவர்தாமில்லை
அந்தமில்லானுக்கு அடுத்தசொல்தான் இல்லை
அந்தமில்லானை அறிந்துகொள்பத்தே

The fact that the Divine has no beginning, middle or end and is also timeless has been mentioned in numerous places:

ஆதியும் அந்தமும் இல்லா அரும்பெருஞ் சோதியை,
கேட்டறியோம் உனைக் கண்டறிவாரை,
 முந்திய முதல் நடு இறுதியும் ஆனாய் -
 மாணிக்கவாசகர்.

ஆதியும் அந்தமும் ஆன ஐயாரன் அடித்தலமே), (ஆதியும் அந்தமும் ஆனான் கண்டாய -
திருநாவுக்கரசர்.

ஆதியும்ஈறும் ஆய எம் அடிகள் - சுந்தரர்.

Others in their moments of their spiritual ecstasy have personified the Divine as music.

ஏழிசையாய் இசைப்பயனாய்), (இறைகளோடு இசைந்த இன்பம், இன்பத்தோடு இசைந்த வாழ்வு -சுந்தரர்.

எழுநரம்பின் இன்இசை கேட்டானை இன்புற்னை), பண்ணின் இசையாகி நின்ய் போற்றி - திருநாவுக்கரசர்.

Thirun^Avuk karasar has employed the following 10 tunes (இராகம், பண்) in the first 21 pathikam (பதிகங்கள்) of the fourth ThirumuRai: kAn^thAram (காந்தாரம்), sAthAri (சாதாரி), kAn^thAra panchamam (காந்தார பஞ்சமம்), kolli (கொல்லி), pazan^ takkam (பழந்தக்கம்), pazam pachuram (பழம்பஞ்காரம்), indhaLam (இந்தளம்), sIkAmaram (சிகாமரம்), kuRinji (குறிஞ்சி), piyanthaik kAnthAram (பியந்தைக்காந்தாரம்) .